Battle of Aspern-Essling - Napoleonic Wars Battle of Aspern-Essling

Battle of Aspern-Essling - Napoleonic Wars Battle of Aspern-Essling Conflict Dates: The Battle of Aspern-Essling was fought May 21-22, 1809, and was part of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). Armies Commanders: French Napoleon Bonaparte27,000 increasing to 66,000 men Austria Archduke Charles95,800 men Battle of Aspern-Essling Overview: Occupying Vienna on May 10, 1809, Napoleon paused only briefly as he wished to destroy the Austrian army led by Archduke Charles. As the retreating Austrians had destroyed the bridges over the Danube, Napoleon moved downstream and began erecting a pontoon bridge across to the island of Lobau. Shifting his troops to Lobau on May 20, his engineers completed work on a bridge to the far side of the river that night. Immediately pushing units under Marshals Andrà © Massà ©na and Jean Lannes across the river, the French quickly occupied the villages of Aspern and Essling. Watching the Napoleons movements, Archduke Charles did not oppose the crossing. It was his goal to allow a sizable part of the French army to cross, then attack it before the rest could come to its aid. While Massà ©nas troops took positions in Aspern, Lannes moved a division into Essling. The two positions were connected by a line of French troops stretched across a plain known as the Marchfeld. As French strength increased, the bridge became increasingly unsafe due to rising flood waters. In an effort to cut off the French, the Austrians floated timbers which severed the bridge. His army assembled, Charles moved to attack on May 21. Focusing his efforts on the two villages, he sent General Johann von Hiller to attack Aspern while Prince Rosenberg assaulted Essling. Striking hard, Hiller captured Aspern but was soon thrown back by a determined counterattack by Massà ©nas men. Surging forward again, the Austrians were able to secure half of the village before a bitter stalemate ensued. At the other end of the line, Rosenbergs assault was delayed when his flank was attacked by French cuirassiers. Driving off the French horsemen, his troops encountered stiff resistance from Lannes men. In an effort to relieve pressure on his flanks, Napoleon sent forward his center, consisting solely cavalry, against the Austrian artillery. Repulsed in their first charge, they rallied and succeeded in driving off the enemy guns before being checked by Austrian cavalry. Exhausted, they retired to their original position. At nightfall, both armies camped in their lines while French engineers worked feverishly to repair the bridge. Completed after dark, Napoleon immediately began shifting the troops from Lobau. For Charles, the opportunity to win a decisive victory had passed. Shortly after dawn on May 22, Massà ©na launched a large-scale attack and cleared Aspern of the Austrians. While the French were attacking in the west, Rosenberg assaulted Essling in the east. Fighting desperately, Lannes, reinforced by General Louis St. Hilaires division, was able to hold and force Rosenberg out of the village. Seeking to retake Aspern, Charles sent Hiller and Count Heinrich von Bellegarde forward. Attacking Massà ©nas tired men, they were able to capture the village. With possession of the villages changing hands, Napoleon again sought a decision in the center. Attacking across the Marchfeld, he broke through the Austrian line at the junction of Rosenberg and Franz Xavier Prince zu Hohenzollern-Hechingens men. Recognizing that the battle was in the balance, Charles personally led forward the Austrian reserve with a flag in hand. Slamming into Lannes men on the left of the French advance, Charles halted Napoleons attack. With the assault failing, Napoleon learned that Aspern had been lost and that the bridge had again been cut. Realizing the danger of the situation, Napoleon began retreating into a defensive position. Taking heavy casualties, Essling was soon lost. Repairing the bridge, Napoleon withdrew his army back to Lobau ending the battle. Battle of Aspern-Essling - Aftermath: The fighting at Aspern-Essling cost the French around 23,000 casualties (7,000 killed, 16,000 wounded) while the Austrians suffered around 23,300 (6,200 killed/missing, 16,300 wounded, and 800 captured). Consolidating his position on Lobau, Napoleon awaited reinforcements. Having won his nations first major victory over the French in a decade, Charles failed to follow up on his success. Conversely, for Napoleon, Aspern-Essling marked his first major defeat in the field. Having allowed his army to recover, Napoleon again crossed the river in July and scored a decisive victory over Charles at Wagram. Selected Sources Historynet: Battle of Aspern-EsslingNapoleon Guide: Battle of Aspern-EsslingBattle of Aspern-Essling

Roman Emperor Theodosius the Great

Roman Emperor Theodosius the Great Under Emperor Valentinian I (r. 364-375), army officer Flavius Theodosius was stripped of command and exiled to Cauca, Spain, where he had been born in about 346. Despite such inauspicious beginnings, Theodosius, with his 8-year-old son installed  in name  as ruler of the Western Empire, became the last emperor to rule the  entire Roman Empire  in fact. Probably two to three years after Valentinian exiled Theodosius (and executed his father), Rome needed Theodosius again. The empire was a formidable power at this time. Thus it was against all odds that on August 9, 378 the Visigoths trounced the  Eastern Empire  and killed its emperor (Valens [r. A.D. 364-378]) at the momentous  Battle of Adrianople. Although it took a while for the after-effects to play out, this defeat is a major event to look at when tracing the  fall of the Roman Empire. With the eastern emperor dead, his nephew, the western Emperor Gratian, needed to reclaim command of  Constantinople  and the rest of the eastern part of the empire. To do so he sent in his best general- the formerly-exiled Flavius Theodosius. Dates: A.D. c. 346-395; (r. A.D. 379-395)Place of Birth: Cauca, in Hispania [see sec. Bd on Map]Parents: Theodosius the Elder and Thermantia Wives: Aelia Flavia Flaccilla;Galla Children: Arcadius (made Augustus on 19 January 383), Honorius (made Augustus on 23 January 393), and Pulcheria;Gratian and Galla Placidia(by adoption) Serena, his niece Claim to Fame: The last ruler of the entire Roman Empire; effectively put an end to pagan practices. Theodosius Hazardous Rise to Power Theodosius own father had been a senior military officer in the Western Empire. Emperor Valentinian had honored him by appointing him magister equitum praesentalis Master of the Horse in the Presence of the Emperor (Ammianus Marcellinus 28.3.9) in 368 and then executed him in early 375 for unclear reasons. Perhaps Theodosius father was executed for trying to intercede on behalf of his son. At about the time Emperor Valentinian executed his father, Theodosius went into retirement in Spain. It was only after Valentinians death (November 17, 375) that Theodosius regained his commission. Theodosius obtained the rank of the magister militum per Illyricum Master of the Soldiers for the Prefecture of Illyricum in 376, which he kept until January 379 when Emperor Gratian appointed him co-Augustus to replace Emperor Valens. Gratian may have been coerced into making the appointment. Barbarian Recruits The Goths and their allies were ravaging not only Thrace but also Macedonia and Dacia. It was the eastern emperor, Theodosius job to suppress them while the western emperor, Gratian attended to matters in Gaul. Although Emperor Gratian provided the Eastern Empire with some troops, Emperor Theodosius needed more because of the devastation that had been caused by the Battle at Adrianople. So he recruited troops from among the barbarians. In an only partially successful attempt to stave off barbarian defection, Emperor Theodosius made a trade: he sent some of his new, questionable recruits to Egypt to be exchanged for presumed-loyal Roman soldiers. In 382 Emperor Theodosius and the Goths reached an agreement: Emperor Theodosius permitted the Visigoths to retain some autonomy while living in Thrace, and many of the Goths enlisted in the imperial army, and especially the cavalry, which had proved to be one of the Roman weaknesses at Adrianople. The Emperors Their Domains From Julian to Theodosius Sons. (Simplified) NB: Valeo is the Latin verb to be strong. It was a popular base for mens names in the Roman Empire. Valentinian was the name of 2 Roman emperors during the lifetime of Theodosius, and Valens was that of a third. Julian Jovian (West) (East) Valentinian I / Gratian Valens Gratian / Valentinian II Theodosius Honorius Theodosius / Arcadius Maximus Emperor In January of 383, Emperor Theodosius named his young son Arcadius successor. Maximus, a general who had served with Theodosius father and may have been a blood relative, may have hoped to be named, instead. That year Maximus soldiers proclaimed him emperor. With these approving troops, Maximus entered Gaul to face Emperor Gratian. The latter was betrayed by his own troops and killed in Lyons by Maximus Gothic magister equitum. Maximus was preparing to advance on Rome when Emperor Gratians brother, Valentinian II, sent a force to meet him. Maximus agreed to accept Valentinian II as ruler of part of the Western Empire, in 384, but in 387 he advanced against him. This time Valentinian II fled to the East, to Emperor Theodosius. Theodosius took Valentinian II into protection. Then he led his army to fight against Maximus in Illyricum, at Emona, Siscia, and Poetovio [see map]. Despite many Gothic troops defecting to Maximus side, Maximus was captured and executed at Aquileia on August 28 , 388. (Valentinian II, Theodosius brother-in-law through his second marriage, was killed or committed suicide in May of 392.) One of the defecting Gothic leaders was Alaric, who fought for Emperor Theodosius in 394 against Eugenius, another pretender to the throne which he lost in the civil war battle on the river Frigidus in September and then against Emperor Theodosius son, but is best known for sacking Rome. Stilicho From the time of Emperor Jovian (377), there had been a Roman treaty with the Persians, but there were skirmishes along the borders. In 387, Emperor Theodosius magister peditum praesentalis, Richomer, put an end to these. Conflict over Armenia picked up again, until another of Emperor Theodosius officials, his magister militum per Orientem, Stilicho, arranged a settlement. Stilicho was to become a major figure in Roman history of the period. In an effort to tie Stilicho to his family and presumably strengthen the claim of Emperor Theodosius son Arcadius, Emperor Theodosius married his niece and adoptive daughter to Stilicho. Emperor Theodosius appointed Stilicho regent over his younger son Honorius and possibly (as Stilicho claimed), over Arcadius, as well. Theodosius on Religion Emperor Theodosius had been tolerant of most pagan practices, but then in 391 he sanctioned the destruction of the Serapeum at Alexandria, enacted laws against pagan practices, and put an end to the Olympic games.  He is also credited with putting an end to the power of the Arian and Manichean heresies in Constantinople while establishing Catholicism as the state religion. Sources DIR - TheodosiusNotitia DignitatumMagnus Maximus (383-388 A.D.) Theodosius(www.suc.org/exhibitions/byz_coins/present/Theodosius_I.html 06/26/01) Theodosius IAmmianus, Theodosius and Sallusts JugurthaThe Roman Magistri in the Civil and Military Service of the Empire, by A. E. R. Boak.  Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 26, (1915), pp. 73-164.

How Does The Rising Rate Of Inflation Bring Down The Prices Of Houses Essay

How Does The Rising Rate Of Inflation Bring Down The Prices Of Houses In The United States - Essay Example Since two-thirds of households in the US or even more have possession of the houses that they reside in, the weight of Owner–Equivalent Rent in the CPI is significant; it accounts for around 23.8% of headline CPI and around 30.8% of the traditional core CPI which excludes energy and food. The rents languished due to an increase in the sale price of houses in the recent years. Since the year of 2000, it can be found that OER has increased approximately 26% while the government’s price index of existing homes has increased 80%. This indicates that the sale prices of existing homes and new homes rose by 5% or even more per year faster than rents since the twist of the millennium (Cecchetti, â€Å"Housing in Inflation Measurement†). Consumer Price Index Levels (1950-2003): Source: (Cedar Spring Software, Inc., â€Å"Price Inflation†). The above chart indicates how the effects of continuous inflation build up over the years. It consists of the index values of C PI for the month of December of each year. The value of index of 180 indicates that prices have risen 80% which is measured from a â€Å"base of 100†. With the help of index values, one can determine that goods and services which cost $3,000 at the end of the year 1992 will cost $3,897.00 at the end of the year 2003. The supposed household cannot wait for the inflation to be at a normal level. They must make sure that their interest and income keep pace with the long-term inflation or else they would become poor (Cedar Spring Software, Inc., â€Å"Price Inflation†). Percent Changes in Inflation (1950-2003): Source: (Cedar Spring Software, Inc., â€Å"Price Inflation†). The above chart depicts changes in the inflation rate and not the actual price changes. A line that trends downward which is above... The researcher of this essay focuses on the issue of the connections between the inflation and housing in the United States. The researcher states that although inflation occurs regularly in the economic system, it becomes a matter of concern when it reaches at higher levels. The rate of inflation, that is discussed and analyzed in the essay provides the measure of price changes, which occur for many goods and services. When it comes to individual goods, the changes in the prices vary greatly. The prices of number of goods such as gasoline, health care, housing and automobiles have significantly increased during the last decades. On the other hand, the prices of the commodities such as computing power and calculators have decreased. Different methods are used to measure the inflation rate, but the most common approach to measure inflation in the United States is Consumer Price Index (CPI) which includes the steps, described in the essay. The researcher then focuses on the calculating of the real inflation rates in the United States and provides graphics and charts on the topic of Percent Changes in Inflation and Consumer Price Index Levels. It is then concluded by the researcher that the stock market and the housing market had gone down, thereby reducing the supply of money and creating a crisis of liquidity, thus sinking the United States into a deflationary period where the prices were in fact lower than 2008, reaching a deflationary short of -2.1% in the month of July of the year 2009.

Motivation Concepts in Criminl Justice Communities Research Paper

Motivation Concepts in Criminl Justice Communities - Research Paper Example As a result, managers should be aware that one of their main functions at the workplace is to motivate workers for them to be able to increase their efficiency and efforts towards the accomplishment of organizational goals. Despite the benefits of motivation in the workplace, motivating workers have never been easy to some organizations. This is attributed to the fact that not all employees are motivated by the same factors. For instance, one employee can be motivated by simply increasing the benefits to workers while others will require more things to be done such as offering job securities. Therefore, managers should understand well what motivates his or her workers and employ the right tools for the success of an organization. Significance of motivation at workplace Motivation plays a big role at the workplace. Gail (2010) notes that for an organization to accomplish its objectives and meet its short and long-term objectives, then workers must be motivated. This is because a motiv ated employee works hard towards the attainment of the organization’s objective, which is very important. In addition, motivation increases an employee’s efficiency and productivity, which is important for an organization’s overall performance (Gail, 2010). ... A happy employee will certainly work hard thereby ensuring organizational goals are achieved. It also reduces instances of absenteeism at the workplace that may affect the company. Research indicates that most companies that perform well have high levels of motivations their workers. In addition, motivation reduces labor turnover within an organization because it makes employees feel comfortable working for the organization. This is because motivation makes employees feel attached to the organization they work for (Mork, 2010). Further, motivation reduces incidences of labor unrest among employees. Research has established that organizations, which motivate their workers, do not experience labor unrest among its employees, which is certainly very important since this help build the reputation of an organization. Motivation is also important because it defines whether an organization will be successful or fail. This is because a demoralized employee may not see the need to working tow ards achievement of organizational goals, which will certainly result in low productivity or labor unrest. Therefore, managers should strive to ensure that workers are motivated all the time for greater productivity and success (Mork, 2010). Workplace motivation techniques Managers can use a variety of techniques to motivate their workers. Recognition is one of the tolls that can be used by managers to motivate workers (Ray, 2010). Recognition here refers to acknowledging a job well done by an employee. In fact, it cost absolutely nothing to recognize an employee. However, an employee who feels appreciated will be motivated to work extra hard towards achievement of organizational objectives. Secondly, employees can also be motivated by offering promotion and leadership opportunities.

Emma by Jane Austen Essay -- Emma Jane Austen

About the Author Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775 at Steventon, England. She was the seventh child of the rector of the parish at Steventon, and lived with her family until they moved to Bath when her father retired in 1801. Her father, Reverend George Austen, was from Kent and attended the Tunbridge School before studying at Oxford and receiving a living as a rector at Steventon. Her mother, Cassandra Leigh Austen, was the daughter of a patrician family. Among her siblings she had but one sister, Cassandra, with whom she kept in close contact her entire life. Her brothers entered a variety of professions: several joined the clergy, one was a banker, while several more spent time in the military. Although her family was neither noble nor wealthy, Rev. Austen had a particular interest in education, even for his daughters. Although her novels focus on courtship and marriage, Jane Austen remained single her entire life. She died in Winchester on July 8, 1817. Jane Austen published four novels anonymously during her lifetime: Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1815). Two novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published posthumously in 1817. These novels are prominent for her satiric depiction of English society and manners. Summary of Emma Jane Austen's Emma is a novel of courtship. Like all of Austen's novels, it centres on the marriage plot: who will marry whom? For what reasons will they marry? Love, practicality, or necessity? At the centre of the story is the title character, Emma Woodhouse, an heiress who lives with her widowed father at their estate, Hartfield. At the beginning of the novel, she is a self-satisfied young woman who feels no particular need to marry, for she is in the rather unique condition of not needing a husband to supply her fortune. At the beginning of the novel, Emma's governess, Miss Taylor, has just married Mr. Weston, a wealthy man who owns Randalls, a nearby estate. The Westons, the Woodhouses, and Mr. Knightley (who owns the estate Donwell Abbey) are at the top of Highbury society. Mr. Weston had been married earlier. When his previous wife died, he sent their one child (Frank Churchill) to be raised by her brother and his wife, for the now-wealthy Mr. Weston could not at that time provide for the boy. Without Miss Taylor as a companion,... ...e is unpopular in Highbury due to her poor manners and arrogance, but becomes good friends with Jane Fairfax. Her status in society rests only on the fact that her sister married very well. She refuses to treat others with the proper respect they are accorded, including even Mr. Knightley. Mr. John Knightley - A tall, gentleman-like, clever man, respectable and reserved. Emma dislikes him somewhat for his severity and lack of patience. He is Knightley's brother and Woodhouse's son-in-law. He is married to Isabella, Emma's sister. They live in London and visit only occasionally. Mr. John Knightley is given to complaint and bad humour; his wife is submissive and devoted entirely to him. Mrs. Goddard: The mistress of a Boarding school where girls might be sent to receive a little education. Her school was in high repute. One of her former students is Harriet Smith, who now assists Mrs. Goddard. Miss Bates: The daughter of Mrs. Bates, she was neither young, married, handsome nor rich. She is a pitiable character with the worst predicament. She lacks all distinguishing traits such as intellect or cleverness, yet she was mostly happy and treated others with great goodwill.

Descartes †Meditations on First Philosophy Essay

â€Å"Give a detailed account of Descartes’ systematic doubt or methodical doubt in Meditation 1, making it certain that you distinguish between real doubts and so called hypothetical/metaphysical doubts. Then, explain in detail, exactly how Descartes dispels each and every one of these doubts during the course of the subsequent Meditations beginning with the cogito. Do you think that Descartes has been completely successful? Explain.†The main goal of Descartes in Meditations on First Philosophy was to find truth behind all of his beliefs in order to build a solid foundation of certainty, and to focus his beliefs strictly on his idea of certainty; essentially to question knowledge. Descartes beliefs are mainly based on the theory that, if someone thinks that they really know something, they must be correct. Descartes meditations bring about 3 key issues that are discussed throughout the entire book; the existence of him being a thinking thing, God as a supreme being and being deceived by the Evil Genius, as well as the idea that the body is an extension of the mind. Descartes provides a solid argument throughout the entire book, calling into question every aspect of what I is, and the world around him. Descartes is trying to decipher whether or not he, anybody or anything in fact is real and he also goes on to argue that our knowledge is gained via our everyday experiences. Through examining each meditation, discussing the cogito, as well as what he discusses in terms of his senses and the external world, the dream hypothesis and his evil genius theory; I will conclude that in fact he does exist, knowledge exists, and God exists. There are two real doubts in which Descartes talks about throughout the meditations. The first being the senses and external world in which he believes causes one to doubt. He claims that in order for him to believe that of his senses he must acquire complete certainty, and he says that we should ask ourselves whether perception is really a legitimate means for attaining knowledge, can we trust our senses? If not, what grounds do we have to deny? Descartes claims that at times the senses can become deceiving under certain circumstances. He says that certain lighting, distance and even depth perception can cause one to conclude incorrectly with regards to their senses. With this in mind, he introduces the lunatic hypothesis. He believes that he can doubt his senses even if the external conditions are  perfect as long as the internal conditions are not. The idea of common sense realism is also established which is the idea that truth come from the senses and the way that they appear. Common sense says that the only way to know the body is through the mind because it is visible and touchable. Descartes then dismisses the idea because he says he would not be able to perceive with his meditations if he were to deem this belief as being true. The second real doubt that Descartes brings to our attention is the dream hypothesis. This is the idea that sleeping and reality cause one to doubt. Descartes says that everyone is prone to dream and that if he is dreaming, everything he thinks he is experiencing is in fact false. This doubt then goes from a real doubt to a metaphysical doubt. He asks, if I am dreaming, is there anything that is true, reliable and certain? If not, then everything must be an illusion. He says that we sense while we are sleeping therefore when we are awake, or what we believe to be awake, how do we know that we are not actually asleep? He says †¦let us assume that we are sleeping and these particulars are not true; that were opening our eyes; moving our head, and extending our hands (pg 60). He claims that if in fact we were dreaming these issues they must be true because in order to dream something, one must have had to experience it at some point. Therefore we must acknowledge that things seen in our dreams are painted images which must be true and exist. The idea of the Evil Genius is a metaphysical doubt, logically speaking. In this sense, God is perfect, and would never allow deception and error to take place because they are imperfect and God consists only of perfect qualities. God would not allow one to be deceived because he is supremely good, therefore deception and error must be a result of another source. He says that if his origin is from something other than God, he could have easily created him so that he makes mistakes and until he finds his origin doubt is going to occue. Descartes supposes that God is just a tale so he says let us just fraction him out of the equation entirely. Descartes decides that he is just going to doubt everything based on two principles. The first being that everything should be doubted at some point by those who seek the truth and the second being that things that are considered doubtful  should be treated as if they are false. With that in mind he concludes that he does exist even against all doubts because the Evil Genius can never say that Descartes is non-existent because he thinks he is something therefore he must be. I think, therefore I am. In meditation one Descartes starts off talking about the foundations of his beliefs in order to gain better knowledge on the grounds of certainty. He says that any sort of knowledge he has previously to the meditations he received through his senses and that they can at times be deceptive. What grounds do we have to deny the idea that knowledge comes from the senses. Descartes claims that because we sense while we are dreaming, there is really no way of determining whether or not we are awake or asleep. What we perceive through the senses could have be obtained during slumber and we would be none the wiser. He says that I extend this hand consciously and deliberately, and I feel it (pg 60). He argues that if he were in fact sleeping while doing so, it would not have been so clear and distinct. He uses the example that what we dream of are like painted images. For instance, he uses the example of an artist creating a siren or a hippogriff, they combine parts of other animals or something that we have never seen before to make it even though it is false. However Descartes goes on to argue that what her perceives through the sense could in fact be false, but since other things that are simple and universal are true, what is to say that we cannot trust our senses. He states..it is not improper to conclude from this that physics, astronomy, medicine, and all other disciplines that are dependent upon the consideration of composite things are doubtful and that on the other hand, arithmetic and geometry, which are simple and general and indifferent as to whether these things do or do not exists, contain certainty†¦ (pg 61). Descartes believes that it is completely impossible that these obvious truths are all under suspicion for being false. Going back to the argument regarding whether or not God exists he claims that the idea of God has been inside him forever and it must have been put in him by his creator. He begins to question if he is a deceiver or not, God is said to be supremely good so it must be something else, something foreign that allows him to be  deceived since deception is an imperfection and God does not contain any imperfections. Thus the idea of the evil genius is born, the idea that this clever and deceitful being is dedicating every bit of energy into deceiving and misleading him. By creating this theory, Descartes now believes that all of his former opinions and views are false and he continues on with his meditations. In the second meditation, Descartes is trying to determine what truth is, and what is not. He claims that he feels as though he is lost at in a sea of knowledge and he cannot keep his head afloat. His main goal throughout this meditation is to find something that is certain and absolutely unshakable. He believes that if nothing in his mind exists and it is only deceitful, what is true, maybe nothing is. Descartes says is there not some God who puts theses thoughts in my head? I could be the creator. Am I not something? Am I so tied to a body and senses that I cannot exist without them? (pg 63) He believes that the deceiver can never bring about that he does not exist because as long as he thinks that he is in existence, then he must be. This is where the Cogito comes into play, the idea that whatever thinks, I think therefore I am. With that in mind, Descartes spends the next little bit trying to find what I is. He says that he has a face, hands and arms in which he refers to as his body and that surely sensing does not take place without the body to feel, touch, smell, taste etc. Descartes also argues that thought does exist and it cannot be separated from him, he believes I am, therefore I exist, and as long as I continue to think I will continue to exist. If he ceases to think, he then ceases to exist. He says that he is †¦nothing but a thinking thing; a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason†¦ and that †¦knowledge or I does not depend on things of whose existence we have zero knowledge (pg 65). In other words, he means that knowledge, or I does not depend on things of which we have no knowledge of. He even says that corpeal things [images formed by thought and which the senses themselves examine]; are more clearly and distinctively known to the I. He believes the mind is prone to error and that one must try to differentiate between perceiving through the mind as opposed through vision. Descartes then introduces us to the example of wax. He says that  although it has melted, and that the shape, smell, taste and everything else that he once witnessed no longer exist, the wax is still the same wax and it is the essence that has not changed. He claims that he knows wax not through what he saw but through the inspection of the mind alone. He states that what he thought he saw in terms of the wax was really only a result of his judgement, which is a part of his mind. He claims what when he first saw it, it was perceived through an external sense or common sense and that it cannot be perceived without human mind. If I judge that the wax exists from the fact that I see it, certainly from this same face that I see the wax, is more evidence that I must exist (pg 69). He believes that since he knows our bodies are not professed through senses or imaginations but rather from the mind and intellect; he now knows that nothing can be perceived more easily and readily then his mind. He is basically saying that the senses provide us with observable traits about a subject whereas the mind and intellect give us understanding; his main point is that our perception is nothing but judgement. The third meditation brings up the idea of the Cogito again. He cannot be doubted when he says, I think therefore I am, and that the ideas in which he has are real. Descartes says that †¦there can never be more objective reality produced then formal reality because it is impossible to create something out of nothing (pg 70). He says that he has an idea of what a perfect or infinite substance is and that is God, and since everything he perceives clearly and distinctively is true, then God must be perfect and infinite. Because I have no reason for thinking that there is a God who is a deceiver, the basis for doubting, depending as it does merely on the above hypotheses [whether God exists or not], is tenuous or metaphysical (pg 71). He says that the certainty of the belief of the cogito lies in his clear and distinct perception; saying, thinking, and believing it make it true. Then he asks, what if something clear and distinct turned out to be false, but he quickly answers by claiming that he would not have known because he has already accepted it as being true. Descartes then begins to talk about his thoughts and puts them into three classifications: ideas (images of objects), volitions or emotions (adding  something to ideas), and judgements (either affirm or deny). He claims that there are three different kinds of ideas out there; innate ideas which are ideas that are born into a person and exist as long as the mind exists in which every mature rational being would have these. The next would be adventitious ideas which are acquired through sensations, he says these are ideas that are gained again his will for example hearing a noise or feeling heat. The final type of idea Descartes believes exists is fictitious or fabricated ideas which are ideas that are invented by the imagination. These ideas cannot be trusted and it is in this sense that one must learn to separate mind from imagination. The mind perceives through the senses; and sense perception does not occur without the body, therefore the body must exist. Descartes uses an example of the sun, which he says arises from two different ideas, one which comes from the senses [derived from outside of him] and one which arises from astronomy or innate ideas. Through that notion the sun is known to be a large ball of fire, but through the senses the sun is perceived as being rather small and bright. He says that †¦if we assume that something is found in the idea that was not in its cause, then it results from nothing (pg 75). For example he uses the idea of hot and cold. He says that cold could be a privation of heat and vice versa but since ideas can only be of real things, the idea that cold is determined as a result of the absence of warmth, the idea of cold as something real is not true. In sum, the perception of what is infinite was placed in my mind previous to the idea of finite substance, that is that what he believes God to be came before his idea of himself because God is infinite and you cannot add to perfection. Descartes said that he now knows that he depends on another being for existence and that he gained his idea of God not from his senses or unexpectedly but from his innate or natural ideas. He concludes that it would be impossible to exist unless God did exists because: †¦it is manifest by the light of nature that all fraud and deception depend on some defect (pg 80). In meditation Four Descartes is trying to clarify why God is no deceiver. The main question that needs explanation is if God is no deceiver then why and  how do we make mistakes? He believes that all men are prone to make mistakes because like God, our wills are never-ending but our intellect and understanding unfortunately is not. Our mind only allows us to observe things clearly and distinctly which is how we know that they are true. He says when I take note of the fact that I doubt or that I am a thing that is incomplete and dependent there comes to mind a clear and distinct idea of a being that is independent and complete, that is the idea of God (pg 81). Descartes believes that it is possible; if we use our ability properly we will not agree with false judgments. He says I note that these errors depend on the simultaneous concurrence of two causes: the faculty of knowing that is in me and the faculty of choosing, that is the free choice of will, in other words, simultaneously on the intellect and will. Through the intellect alone, I merely perceive ideas about which I can render a judgement (pg 83). God has created us in a way that if we perceive things in a clear and distinct our, way of thinking will not be incorrect. In the fifth meditation, Descartes is basically trying to examine the essence of tangible things. Since Descartes proved that we gain our beliefs and understanding through ideas, he is able to prove that God exists. He then uses the example of a triangle by saying that if God does not exist then a triangle does not have three sides. Since God is believed to be a supremely perfect being, there is no way that he would deceive because then that would conclude that he lacks some perfection. Descartes then attempts to explain the separation between mind and imagination. At this point doubt again gets the best of him and he must try to look beyond the unreliability of the senses. Descartes goes on to say that what I believe must be considered above all here is the fact that I find within me countless ideas of certain things, that, even if perhaps they do not exist anywhere outside me, still cannot be said to be nothing (pg 88). He believes that our knowledge of material things is based on our belief that God exists. I cannot think of God as not existing no more than I can think of a mountain without a valley, nevertheless it surely does not follow from the fact that I think of a mountain without a valley that a mountain exists in the world (pg 89). Material things must be real because God does not deceive. In meditation six Descartes is trying to prove once and for all if material things exist. Descartes then reflects all of the previous meditations to figure it out. He believes that material things can and do exist and that it is through our understanding that this is proven. He says that his senses perceive his body, therefore he must have one. assumes to have a body based on what his senses perceive. He begins to explore this notion that he had previously dismissed to doubt. He inquires whether his senses give him reason for bodies to exist. He says that God has given us a great inclination to believe that these ideas proceeded from corporeal things† (pg 94). Descartes thinks that it is from life that we differentiate other bodies and their explanation. He believes entirely that the mind is a thinking, un-extended thing, but the body is a physical and extended thing because the body can be separated. Descartes then dismisses the dream hypothesis because he realizes that being awake is a part of both the mind and body. He proves that our essence is of the mind and is a lot more known to us than the body. Throughout all the meditations Descartes constantly re-examines each belief and attempts to find the grounds of absolute certainty. It is through the dream hypothesis, the idea of the Evil Genius and his ideas about the senses that he concludes in fact that he is an existing thing, God does exist and so does knowledge. His arguments, although confusing at times were pretty accurate in deciphering between what is false and what is reality. By the end of the meditation it seems as though he is right back where he began and that in fact he did not get anywhere. He was better off to just believe what he originally believed then to question it and put him through such torture. In essence it was almost as though the only thing that he proved was that his senses were intended to help him figure out the world and everything about it not lead him to discovering the truths of the universe. â€Æ'Bibliography Descartes, Rene. Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. 4th ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Company, 1998.

Chemical Structures Starting with the Letter R